Courtesy June Delairre Truesdale

Afro-Caribbeans had their own ways of identifying themselves along racial, color and ethnic lines. But with the one-drop rule in place in the United States, the manner in which others identified them was often different. In many instances, the immigration services labeled them Africans to differentiate them from the white Caribbeans who were listed as West Indians. Viola Richardson left St Maartens to attend Hunter College in New York; on the back of her passport picture, an official wrote "African."